In the late 18th century, at the Massachusetts convention, Samuel Adams proposed that gun rights be limited to “peaceable citizens.” In Pennsylvania, Anti-Federalists proposed guaranteeing a right to bear arms “unless for crimes committed.” And in New Hampshire, delegates recommended an amendment that guaranteed a right to bear arms to all except those “in actual rebellion.”

I would suggest that these proposals, taken together suggest at the very least an understanding of the Second Amendment as restricted to law abiding citizens. I understand that none of these proposals became law. I also fully appreciate that we should not derive meaning from a proposal that gets deleted in the drafting process. Maybe “law-abiding citizens” was left on the cutting room floor because the Framers wanted all persons to retain their “natural right of resistance and self-preservation,” or perhaps because it was so widely understood that only the virtuous could keep their guns. Wiser heads than mine have debated these questions, along with whether three ratifying conventions should control or even dominate the inquiry.