Land Use Law: Zoning in the 21st Century

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
§ 1.01    Zoning and Land Use: A Historical Perspective
§ 1.02    Changing Circumstances
[1]    The Need for Twenty-First Century Zoning Strategies
[2]    Modern Land Use Issues
§ 1.03    Collaborative Zoning
§ 1.04    Economic Development
§ 1.05    Stormwater Management
§ 1.06    Climate Change
§ 1.07    Transit
§ 1.08    Adult Uses
§ 1.09    Second Amendment
§ 1.10    Foreclosure and Blight
§ 1.11    Urban Agriculture
§ 1.12    Cellular Communications
§ 1.13    Wind Energy
§ 1.14    Hydraulic Fracturing
§ 1.15    Digital Signage

CHAPTER 2
Collaborative Zoning Process
§ 2.01    Finding an Alternative to Traditional Zoning Procedure
§ 2.02    Pre-Review Process
[1]    Workshop with Decision Makers
[2]    Meetings with Staff
[3]    Meetings with Stakeholders
§ 2.03    Development Agreements
[1]    Benefits of Development Agreements
[a]    Benefits to the Government
[b]    Benefits to the Developer
[c]    Other Benefits
[2]    Procedures
[a]    Statutory Authority
[b]    Approval and Adoption of the Agreement
[c]    Public Hearing
[d]    Conformance to Plans
[e]    Amendment or Cancellation
[f]    Limits on Conditions
[3]    Potential Issues
[a]    Governments Are Tied to the Develop-ment Agreement
[b]    Local Government Overreach
§ 2.04    Community Benefits Agreements
[1]    Community Benefits Agreements: Defining the Term
[2]    Advantages of Community Benefits Agreements
[3]    Community Benefits Agreements in Action
[4]    Community Benefits Agreement Issues
[a]    Legal Issues
[b]    Policy Issues
§ 2.05    Conclusion

CHAPTER 3
Zoning for Economic Development
§ 3.01    Introduction to Economic Development: Supply and Demand
[1]    Local Market Analysis
[2]    Zoning Code Review
[a]    Economic Diversity
[b]    Fostering Success
§ 3.02    Zoning to Promote Economic Development in Economically Depressed Areas
[1]    Employing Alternative Uses to Reshape Disin-vested Areas
[2]    Supporting Emerging Industries and Industrial Employment Districts
[3]    Exploiting Regional Clusters
[4]    Smart Shrinkage
§ 3.03    Zoning’s Impact on Economic Development
[1]    Zoning Criteria
[2]    Schedule for Consideration
[3]    Hearing Rules
[4]    Training Administrative Bodies
[5]    Using Technology to Expedite Zoning Decisions
§ 3.04    Flexibility and Incentives to Meet Market Demands
[1]    Form-Based Codes
[2]    Overlay Districts
[3]    Performance-Based Regulations

CHAPTER 4
Stormwater Management
§ 4.01    Introduction: Modern Stormwater Management
[1]    Financial and Environmental Threat
[2]    Opportunity for Financial and Environmental Gains
[3]    The Reality of Modern Stormwater Management
[a]    Stormwater Management Is Non-Discretionary
[b]    Centralized and Reactive Stormwater Management Is Expensive and Inefficient
§ 4.02    Approaching Local Stormwater Management
[1]    The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
[a]    Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Sys-tems (MS4s)
[b]    NPDES Permit Requirements for Regu-lated MS4s
[c]    Six Core Criteria for Small MS4s
[d]    Low Impact Development and Green In-frastructure Requirements
[2]    Stormwater Management and Watershed De-velopment Ordinances
§ 4.03    Zoning for Efficient Stormwater Management
[1]    Specific Zoning Tools
[a]    Impervious Footprint
[b]    Setbacks
[c]    Landscaping Ordinances
[2]    Green Infrastructure
§ 4.04    Intergovernmental Cooperation
[1]    Understanding Resources and Authority
[2]    Assessing Needs and Looking to Neighbors
[3]    Benefitting from Comparative Advantage
[4]    Case Example: Steeple Run Watershed, Naper-ville, Illinois
§ 4.05    Stormwater Utilities
[1]    Setting Up a Stormwater Utility
[2]    Funding Proactive Management
[3]    Promoting Equality: Pay for Your Pollution
[4]    Internalize Externalities
[5]    Legal Considerations: Is It a Tax or a Fee?
§ 4.06    Environmental Factors and Stormwater Management
[1]    Urban and Suburban Areas
[2]    Coastlines
[3]    Climate

CHAPTER 5
Climate Change
§ 5.01    Introduction: Think Globally, Act Locally
§ 5.02    Local Efforts to Address Climate Change
[1]    Setting Carbon Benchmarks
[2]    Meeting Carbon Benchmarks
[3]    Regulating the Regulators
[4]    Removing Regulatory Barriers and Leveling the Playing Field
[5]    Zoning Overlay Districts
[6]    Green Building Codes
[a]    Voluntary Green Building Requirements
[b]    Mandatory Green Building Requirements

CHAPTER 6
Pedestrian and Transit Oriented Development
§ 6.01    Transit Oriented Development
[1]    Framing the Economic and Environmental Is-sues
[2]    TOD as One Solution to Two Problems
§ 6.02    Policies for Implementing TOD
[1]    Comprehensive Plan
[2]    From Planning to Regulation
§ 6.03    Zoning for TOD
[1]    Land Use Strategies
[a]    Promote Density
[b]    Encourage Mixed Uses
[c]    Facilitate a Range of Housing Options
[d]    Deemphasize Parking and Promote Pe-destrian Circulation and Cycling
[2]    Site Design Strategies
[a]    Public Spaces
[b]    Building Character
[c]    Architecture
[d]    Environmental Sustainability
[3]    Zoning Tools
[a]    Base District Zoning
[b]    Overlay Districts
[c]    Floating Zones
[d]    Planned Unit Development
[e]    Incentive Zoning
[f]    Requiring Zoning Compliance with Comprehensive or “Master” Plans for Land Use

CHAPTER 7
Adult Uses
§ 7.01    Adult Uses and the First Amendment
[1]    The First Amendment to the United States Con-stitution
[2]    Adult Conduct Protected by the First Amend-ment
[3]    Adult Conduct Not Protected by the First Amendment
§ 7.02    Types of Adult Use Regulations
[1]    Content-Based Regulations
[2]    Secondary-Effect Regulations
[a]    Determining if a City Is Regulating the Content of Speech or Secondary Effects
[b]    Legislative Findings Supporting Second-ary Effects Regulations
[c]    Relevance and Sufficiency of Legislative Findings
[d]    Proof That Regulations Will Be Effective
[3]    Restrictions on Location of Adult Uses
[4]    Amortizing Adult Uses
[5]    Regulation Hours of Operation
[6]    Adult Use Licensing Requirements
[7]    Performer Interaction with Patrons
[8]    Adult Use Special Use Requirements
[9]    Adult Uses and Alcohol
§ 7.03    Drafting Adult Use Regulations
[1]    Void for Vagueness
[2]    Overly Broad Regulations

CHAPTER 8
Zoning and the Second Amendment
§ 8.01    Introduction
§ 8.02    The Second Amendment
[1]    Collective Right Approach
[2]    Individual Right Approach
[a]    Heller and McDonald: Fundamental Right to Possess a Handgun for Self Defense, Especially in the Home
[b]    Presumptively Lawful Regulatory Measures
[c]    Applicability of Second Amendment Rights to States
[3]    Application of the Second Amendment Outside the Home
§ 8.03    Analytical Framework: Two-Part Test
§ 8.04    Potential Land Use Implications
[1]    Residential Possession Bans
[2]    The “Sensitive Places” Exception
[a]    Schools and Government Buildings
[b]    Parks
[c]    Private Property
[d]    Areas Around Sensitive Places
[e]    Other Possible Sensitive Places
[3]    Gun Shops and the Commercial Sales Exception
[4]    Firing Ranges
[5]    Home Occupations
§ 8.05    Developing Facts to Support Regulation of Gun-Related Land Uses

CHAPTER 9
Foreclosures, Distressed Properties, and Blight
§ 9.01    Introduction
§ 9.02    The Impact of Foreclosures
[1]    Financial Impact
[2]    Social Service Impacts
§ 9.03    Tools to Address the Impact of Foreclosures, Distressed Properties, and Blight
[1]    Prevention
[a]    Guidance and Advice Programs
[b]    Litigation
[c]    Mediation
[d]    Reform Legislation
[2]    Redress
[a]    Property Maintenance Codes and Ordi-nances
[b]    Vacant Building Ordinances, Registries, and Databases
[i]    Ordinances
[ii]    Registries
[iii]    Databases
[c]    Municipal Liens
[d]    Demolition and Land Re-Use
§ 9.04    Redeveloping Foreclosed, Distressed, and Blighted Properties—Land Banking
[1]    Statutory Authority for Land Banking
[2]    Using Land Banking to Address the Impact of Foreclosures on Suburbs and Industrial Urban Neighborhoods
[a]    Suburbs
[b]    Industrial Urban Neighborhoods
[3]    Funding Land Banks
[a]    Federal Laws and Programs Funding Land Use Initiatives
[i]    Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008
[ii]    American Recovery and Reinvest-ment Act of 2009
[iii]    Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010
[b]    Local Funding Options
[i]    Tax-Increment Financing
[ii]    Local Partnerships with Lenders
[4]    Land Bank Controversies and Litigation
[a]    Land Bank Criticism
[b]    Land Bank Litigation
§ 9.05    Conclusion

CHAPTER 10
Urban Agriculture
§ 10.01    Introduction to Urban Agriculture
[1]    What Is Urban Agriculture?
[2]    Why Urban Agriculture?
[a]    Environmental Benefits
[b]    Health Benefits
[c]    Economic Benefits
[3]    Why Not Urban Agriculture?
§ 10.02    Adopting Urban Agriculture Policies
§ 10.03    Carrots: Tools to Promote Urban Agriculture
[1]    Resolutions, Policy Statements, and Executive Orders
[2]    Food Policy Councils
[3]    Identifying and Reducing Regulatory Obstacles
[4]    Long-Range Planning
[5]    Permitted Uses and Urban Agricultural Districts
[6]    Resources
[7]    Financing
[8]    Procurement Policies
§ 10.04    Sticks: Ways to Regulate Urban Agriculture
[1]    Topics of Regulation
[a]    Commercial Restrictions
[b]    Minimum Lot Size and Setback Re-quirements
[c]    Structure Regulations
[d]    Front Yard Ordinances
[e]    Public Health Regulations
[f]    Product Safety and Disease Regulations
[g]    Slaughter Regulations
[2]    Common Law Regulations
[a]    Nuisance
[b]    Restrictive Covenants
[3]    Land Use Regulations
[a]    Prohibited Uses
[b]    Special Use Permits
[c]    Accessory Uses
[d]    Floating Zones
[e]    Ordinances

CHAPTER 11
Zoning for Cellular Communications
§ 11.01    Introduction
[1]    History of Cellular Communications
[2]    The Need for Antennas and Networks
[3]    Regulatory Framework
[4]    Policy Issues
§ 11.02    The Law
[1]    Federal Law and State Authority
[2]    Substantive Rules
[a]    Nondiscrimination
[b]    Prohibition of Service and Gaps in Cov-erage: Actual vs. De Facto Exclusions
[c]    Evidence and Written Records
[d]    FCC Policies and Orders Related to Non-discrimination
[e]    Additional Limitations on Local Gov-ernment Zoning Authority
[i]    Substantial Change to a Tower or Base Station’s Physical Dimensions
[ii]    Defining “Wireless Tower or Base Station”
[iii]    Time Limits for Approval
[iv]    Application Requirements for Sec-tion 6409(a)-Sanctioned Actions
[f]    Further Efforts to Limit Local Zoning Au-thority
[3]    Procedural Rules
[a]    Shot Clocks: Time Limits for Decision Making
[b]    Litigation
[i]    Unreasonable Delay
[ii]    Failure to Act or Issue a Written Decision
[c]    Tolling
[d]    Remedy for Shot Clock Violations
§ 11.03    Distributed Antenna System Technology
[1]    Public Safety/First Responder
[2]    Cellular Technology: Regulation by Zoning or Right-of-Way Management
§ 11.04    Strategies for Regulating Cellular Facilities
[1]    Procedural Tips
[2]    Substantive Advice
§ 11.05    Conclusion

CHAPTER 12
Wind Energy
§ 12.01    A Brief History of Wind Energy
§ 12.02    Modern Wind Energy
§ 12.03    Technology
[1]    Site Selection
[2]    Tower Height
[3]    The Blades
[4]    The Rotor
[5]    Connecting to the Grid
[a]    Transmission Line Access
[b]    Grid Interconnection
§ 12.04    Economic Considerations
[1]    Construction Cost
[2]    Job Creation
[3]    Government Subsidies
§ 12.05    Environmental Issues
[1]    Turbines and Bird Populations
[2]    Endangered Species
[a]    Litigation
[b]    Minimizing Risks to Endangered Species
[3]    Emissions Reduction
[4]    Turbine Icing
§ 12.06    Community Opposition
[1]    Aesthetics
[2]    Property Values
[3]    Noise
[4]    Shadow Flicker
[5]    Turbine Lighting
§ 12.07    Local Control over Wind Power
[1]    Location and Setbacks
[a]    Large Turbines
[b]    Personal Turbines
[2]    Permitted or Special Use
[3]    Tower Height
[4]    Sound
[5]    Number Per Lot
[6]    Safety
[7]    Shadow Flicker
[8]    Blade Clearance
[9]    Road Protection
[10]    Abandonment and Decommissioning
[11]    Prohibition

CHAPTER 13
Hydraulic Fracturing
§ 13.01    Hydraulic Fracturing (“Fracking”)
[1]    Historical and Technological Background
[2]    Fracking as a Land Use and Zoning Issue
§ 13.02    Existing Statutes and Regulations
[1]    Federal Action
[2]    State Action
[a]    Transparency and Disclosure Require-ments
[b]    Bans and Moratoria
[c]    Water Protection: Quality and Quantity
[d]    Severance Taxes and Fees
[3]    Local Action
[a]    Regulations
[b]    Bans
§ 13.03    Strategies for State and Local Regulation
[1]    Local Control
[2]    Traditional Zoning

CHAPTER 14
Signage Regulation in the Digital Age
§ 14.01    Digital Signage Regulation
§ 14.02    Signs and the First Amendment
[1]    Content-Based Regulations
[2]    Content-Neutral Regulations
§ 14.03    Types of Communication on Signs
[1]    Commercial Speech
[2]    Noncommercial Speech
[3]    Total Ban on Speech
[4]    On-Site Advertising Versus Off-Site Advertising
§ 14.04    How to Adopt Digital Sign Regulations
§ 14.05    How to Effectively Regulate Digital Signs
[1]    Restrictions on the Size of a Sign
[2]    Restrictions on Sign Movement
[3]    Restrictions on Sign Brightness
[4]    Location of Digital Signs
[5]    Billboard Exchange Requirements
[6]    Public Use of Digital Signs

APPENDICES

Appendix A: 25 Guidelines to Drafting, Negotiating, and Enforcing Community Benefits Agreements
Appendix B: Sample Stormwater Regulations
Appendix C: Sample Zoning and Land Use Ordinance
Appendix D: Sample Overlay Regulations
Appendix E: Sample Firearms Sales Regulations
Appendix F: Sample Vacant Property and Registration Regulations
Appendix G: Guidelines for the Promotion of Sustainable Food Production
Appendix H: Sample Wind Energy Regulations